Communication Style Case Study Essay

Communication style is the method used to deliver our messages to others. Its outcome is affected by the style chosen by the individual to relay our message. The different styles are passive, assertive, aggressive, passive-aggressive. Throughout my experience in healthcare, I have either witness or taken part in different situations that used different styles of communication. There are three specific personal scenarios that come to mind when I think about the different styles of communication. First Personal Scenario During a nursing school hospital rotation I was assigned to follow a registered nurse and witness communication between the nurse and client. The nurse entered the clients room and without a courteous greeting such as good morning or a simple hello stated, â€Å"Mrs. Jones here is your medication.† The client responded, â€Å"I do not want it. All you do all day is give me too much medication.† The nurse replied with a firm tone of voice and eye rolling, â€Å"You have to take it. How do you expect to get better if you do not take your medicine?† Both the nurse and client used aggressive communication. The nurse could prevent the conflict with the client had she initiated an assertive style of communication. To improve the communication the nurse should respond assertively with a moderate voice pitch, a relaxed body stance, acknowledge the clients feelings, and encourage the client to address her concerns (Arnold & Boggs, 2011). Also the nurse should explain why the client is being given the medication to help the client understand the reason. According to Hansten and Jackson (2009), to make communication clear we must explain why we need to take such actions. In this scenario the outcome using an aggressive style will lead to failure to achieve a client focused therapeutic relationship. Instead the client feels that they  cannot trust the nurse and respond aggressively. Trust is an essential component to a therapeutic relationship (Arnold & Boggs, 2011). Had the nurse approached the client with a simple greeting followed by the name of medication and the reason for taking it, perhaps the client would have been more willing to be compliant with the recommended care. Second Personal Sce nario Recently I witness a situation where a nursing assistant was sitting at the nursing station and the nurse was walking by holding medications and a water cup in her hand. The nurse asked the nursing assistant, â€Å"The call light is on in room five and I need to give another client his medications. Would you please see what the client needs.† The nursing assistant crosses her arms and replies, â€Å"I am tired of these lazy nurses. I always have to do everything.† The nurse rolled her eyes and replied, â€Å"Just do your job and do what I asked.† In this situation the nursing assistant responded aggressively. The nurse first used the assertive style then replied using the aggressive style. Instead the nurse should have been consistent with an assertive response. For example she could of replied without rolling her eyes, using a medium voice pitch, abstain from insults, and acknowledge the other persons feelings (Hansten & Jackson, 2009). The other person is more likely to listen if they are not feeling insulted and preventing the conflict from escalating (Hansten & Jackson, 2009). Also, conflict should be addressed and not ignored to resolve it (Arford, 2005). In this situation the poor communication caused a lack of trust and took the focus away from the clients care. This in turn can cause retaliation among peers and jeopardize quality client care. Both conflicting parties are forgetting that their goal is to provide quality client focus care and collaboration is essential to deliver it. Collaboration helps accomplish better outcomes than one person alone (Arford, 2005). Third Personal Scenario I had a personal situation where the doctor ordered for a twenty-four hour urine collection. The procedure involves collecting the urine immediately after the client voids and transferring it to a special container kept on ice, to preserve the urine. I informed my nursing assistant, â€Å"I started a twenty-four hour urine collection in room 5. Can you please make sure to  check frequently for urine in the bedside commode and place it in the collection container.† The nursing assistance replied, â€Å"Ok. I will.† The next time I went into the clients room I noticed the ice where the container is kept had melted. I then replaced the ice and told my nursing assistant, â€Å"I noticed the ice had melted in room five. Please check on the ice levels hourly.† She replied, â€Å"Ok. I will.† It seemed as if every time I checked on the ice levels they had melted. I found myself frustrated and ended replacing the ice myself to get the job done correctly. I reali ze now that my communication with my assistant was non-assertive. My assistant was passive in her response. I failed to assess my assistant’s level of understanding of the procedure and instead I lost trust and became frustrated. Communication should be clear, complete and explain why we need a task done a certain way (Hansten & Jackson, 2009). If I would of taken the extra time to explain the reason why we keep specimens on ice perhaps my assistant would of taken the time to do the task. In return I would have been able to attend to others duties had I been able to trust my assistant. Instead my message was incomplete and my reaction demonstrated a lack of trust toward my assistant. References Arford, P. H. (2005, March/April). Nurse-physician communication: An organizational accountability. Nursing Economics, 23(2), 72-77. Retrieved on March 16, 2014, from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/docview/2369346accountid=458 Arnold, E., & Boggs, K. U. (2011). Interpersonal relationships: Professional communication skills for nurses (6th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier/Saunders. Hansten, R. I., & Jackson, M. (2009). Clinical delegation skills: A handbook for professional practice (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning.

Digital Camera

Technology within the last fifty years has evolved drastically because of the introduction of computers. This technology remains changing, mostly for the better as a multitude of public and private corporations do their research and development to elevate mankind’s way of life into another level of advancement. One most notable change in the people’s everyday lives is the evolution of photography.From bulky cameras, film and hour-long photo development came the instant, flashy, sleek and compact digital cameras that can take photographs and can store them instantly electronically. This paper provides a critique of Thom Hogan’s (2009) article, â€Å"How Digital Cameras Work. † Catching moments and having a souvenir for it are the main points of why people take a photo. People can be sentimental and so, a camera is a gadget that almost every household have. However, there are so many people out there who do not have the zest and passion for photography and t he science behind it.Majority of users do not understand their digital cameras and the author, Thom Hogan, wrote the article to help these millions of people to get to know how a digital camera works and it is often not wise to rely on the adverts or express warranty a manufacturer claims, as more often than not, those claims are not true, scientifically speaking. The opening notes of the article says this much and this is a catchy enough way to get attention of even uninterested users.The main concern about the article, is that, even though it is written for people without photography background, the terminologies used seem to be strictly for photographers. For instance, a lot of average users of digital cameras do not know the difference between 28mm vs. a 35mm cameras and the author used the â€Å"35 mm† term as though everyone would understand what it means. The author could have set up a terminologies page to help the average users understand the article better. That bei ng said, this paper shall now discuss the rest of the article.The author tackled first the functions of a camera’s sensor. This is of course the silicon chip on a digital camera which has two kinds: CCD and CMOS. CCD and CMOS are explained by author in the next part which is a smart move considering that this article can be used for basic digital photography and some technical terms must be already infused. CCD, according to the author, is an old technology while CMOS is the sensor of today and this sensor shall be the one referred to for the rest of the paper.The author mentioned one brand that designed a good CMOS sensor and that brand is Nikon. Such mention of brand can raise eyebrows as one would think whether this particular author has been paid by Nikon to advertise the brand’s sensors on a variety of users, after all, who is better to trust than an expert in photography? Next, the author mentioned photosites within the sensors. Photo diodes are the light sensing portion of photosites and they cannot cover the entire sensor as there are â€Å"non-light responsive spaces between diodes†.This statement by the author can be considered a fair warning to digital camera users. As early as this stage, they know about the limitations of digital photography, that not all sensors are good at sensing light, which is essential in taking photographs. Again, the author endorsed Nikon and Fujifilm cameras as exception to the sensor rule. He described how certain Nikon and Fujifilm sensors (actually named camera models) have overcome this limitation in digital photography. The author proceeded to describe light and sensors the way a physicist would.This is again more confusing to the average reader or even photography novices. Next, the author mentioned that a camera sees in black and white and he described how cameras produce colours in different ways. The different ways the author described are wonderful insights into photography and it can get us ers more valuable information on how they would like to use their camera sensors. More people tend to prefer photographs with vivid colour. Lastly, the author described how to get data from the sensor of a camera.Essentially, he told users the more manipulations done to a camera, the more the image gets further from its original form (adjustment of colour, brightness and even simple JPEG conversion). This is another essential information as some user prefer realistic images over bright colours. Overall, the article is highfaluting one, especially for normal, average user with no inkling for photography but it provides valuable information to those with photography background and would like to know more about the art.

Letters

For the longest time I have felt abandoned and deserted in this world. I see the world move fast   around, feeling dizzy of the haste and hurry of each day and yet in spite of the all the color and life of the world I still felt like I’m in a desert, alone and far from anything alive. Reading this book has opened my eyes and has led me to see God in my everyday life. In my life where I have felt alone and deserted for the longest time, it seems like a miracle that when you try and open your eyes and arms to embrace God’s presence you realize that he is indeed here with us. This book has taught me to open my heart to God and keep him welcome to stay and guide me. I believe that I felt that way for the longest time because I failed to recognize that everyday God is with me. That every achievement is a gift from God even the down times are gifts from God. You emphasized in your book that god is always with us, in the flesh of our brethren as Jesus has said in the bible that whatever we have done unto our brothers we have done unto him. Everyday God touches our lives through our fellowmen. I remember last Christmas, as I was walking home from the sweetshop, lonesome as I was, a young boy gave me a lollipop and it brightened my day. But back then I failed to recognize that it was God telling me that he is always with me, watching me and intending for me to be happy always. As I look back now I see that the emptiness that I felt is because I failed to recognize God’s presence in my life and my failure to offer back to his glory everything that I do in my life. It is more fulfilling to offer back to God everything that we do and to return to him all the praise and glory that we can give. There is no meaning in working for ourselves alone, but there is meaning in working for God and his people. Finally, I learned about forgiveness. I learned to forgive myself and other people as well by recognizing how forgiving God is with our trespasses. That no matter what we do, how much we have sinned, He always welcomes us with open arms and with his eternal love. This book is a call to return to God’s embrace. The Lord has used Elephant to call back his flock to return unto him. One chapter captures the great message of returning to God, the one which deals with Jesus, and who Jesus is. Indeed Jesus is the greatest love of all, he is God’s love for us all. He gave us Jesus his only son to save us from eternal damnation. As it is said in the Bible in John 3:16, â€Å"For God so loved the world that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever shall believe in Him, will not perish, but will receive eternal life.† All the discussion about life,Who is God, God’s presence, Marriage, who the devil is, and others are all to me suppletory to the renewal of our faith in God. Elephant has aptly summed in a single chapter the greatest reason to believe and return to God and his embrace. To know the sacrifice that God has made in order to save us and give us the eternal life which he intended for us in the beginning as can be seen in Exodus 20:3-7â€Å"I am the Lord your God who brought you out of Egypt, where you were slaves. Worship no other god but me. Do not make for yourselves images of anything in heaven or on earth or in the water under the earth. Do not bow down to any idol or worship it, because I am the Lord your God and tolerate no rivals. I bring punishment on those who hate me and on their descendants down to the third and fourth generation. But I show my love to thousands of generations of those who love me and obey my laws.†Ã‚   Is enough reason for us to believe and believe firmly in God’s presence in our life. The small manifestations of his presence through our brethren should serve only to strengthen what he has proven when he gave us Jesus for our salvation. His greatest message of all, which God has conveyed through you, is that he, is here with us, he has always been here, and will always be here for us. There is no room for our faith to flicker because he is real and each of us is a living proof. I have angered God. In a lot of ways I have failed God. I have failed to render help to those who needed my help. I have failed to receive God when he needed shelter. I have failed to live a life that is pleasing to him. I have failed to be the child of God. I recognize all my failures but now I realize that I am wrong, I may have done all these but I have never angered God. God who has eternal love and a fountain of mercy and forgiveness. God who has given his son to save me from the fires of hell. I may be a sinner, but God has not given up on sinners like me. All throughout the bible, sinners are always given the chance to repent for their sins and God has always made a way for them to return back to him. I have realized, by reading this book that no matter how much you have sinned, if you receive God in your heart he will forgive you and receive you. If man comes with sincerity and bow before God, then God’s grace will forgive, and ultimately, save him Because God is love and love flows from him. I have long kept a fear that God hates me because I have angered him greatly through all my sins and wrongdoings but you have proven me wrong. I now know that His grace is eternal and unending. And I am no longer afraid of the end of my days because I know that God is with me and will always be with me, forgiving and loving until the end of time.

Graduation Speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Graduation Speech - Essay Example Effective planning is my greatest strength, and the one I shall rely on to manage my time and complete the MBA successfully at the university. My knowledge of elements of effective planning and experience in implementing the elements establishes the strength. I will particularly rely on advice from friends who have completed MBA programs and from the institution’s faculty for knowledge on scope of the program. I will then analyze anticipated learning environment and identify my specific needs for the MBA. I will then identify motivation factors and be strategic in my planning for the program, based Cowher and Dickson’s concept of effective planning (2009). I will develop a grand plan and mini plans for every course unit. I will use my MBA, after graduating, for long term and short term objectives. The immediate application of the qualification will be to secure a job that will help me gain professional experience and develop my career. Long-term applications will be establishment and management of my private consultancy firm, and attainment of a social position that will help me engage in social responsibility. These will also have positive effects on the university’s image, as a stakeholder to social responsibility through efforts of its

Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 12

Question - Essay Example Soon after, a boycott ensued with African American refusing to board buses unless everyone would be treated equally. This boycott has since been documented as a pivotal point for civil rights and contributed a lot to awareness of Rosa Parks. The first reason why the boycott succeeded was as a result of the unity among African Americans as they joined hands and refused to board buses; a move that caused serious economic strains on the Montgomery Bus Company. In addition, there had been rising protest by Africans for nearly a decade with most of them asking for fair treatment although these protests were predominantly reserved. At an earlier time, a student had protested like Rosa did but her case was not taken seriously as it involved assault. The act by Rosa can be viewed as one that instigated a boycott that ended as a success. Economic strains due to the action by African Americans refusal to use buses and an backed up insurgence that resulted due to Rosa’s imprisonment greatly contributed to African Americans enjoying equal privileges with

Consumer Behavior [Motivation within marketing process] Essay

Consumer Behavior [Motivation within marketing process] - Essay Example This report is divided into three sections, including literature review, reflection, and discussion/analysis. In the first section (literature review), a total of four consumer behaviour theories such as marginal utility theory, consumer choice theory, perceived risk theory, and diffusion of innovations theory are discussed to gain a deep theoretical understanding of various factors that would influence a consumer’s degree of motivation and thereby purchasing behaviour. In the second section (reflection), one of my recent personal consumption activities will be described in order to analyse the motivational factors that led to the specific consumption process. Here, the way the organisation interacted with me to motivate me to consume the product is emphasised. In the third section (discussion/analysis), the major finding of the study is brought together for providing an analysis of my own consumer behaviour in the light of the issues raised in the literature review. Finally, the conclusion part summarises the key findings of the report. In order to critically evaluate the impact of consumer behaviour theories on motivation within the marketing process, it is vital to acquire a better understanding of the concepts of marketing and motivation. The process of marketing is directed at the identification, anticipation, and satisfaction of customer requirements with the ultimate objective of profit maximisation. According to Philip Kotler, â€Å"marketing is that social process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating offerings and freely exchanging products and services of value with others† (as cited in Singla, 2011, p.101). The marketing concept is the philosophy that requires companies to focus on the needs of their customers so as to promote decision making and to meet customer satisfaction better than competitors. As Shimasaki (2009, pp. 98-99) describes from the time

Juvenile Delinquency in the USA Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Juvenile Delinquency in the USA - Research Paper Example The author of the paper states that are the expectations of the public that crime instances done by young offenders will continue to increase anyway no matter what actions and prevention methods the public and the society as a whole try to carry out in order to thwart the prevalence of offenses and criminality. These prospects have their foundations on the forecast of the U.S. Census Bureau which projects that the crimes committed by the young, aged 15-17 - the age group responsible for 30 percent of the offenses incurred by the juveniles - will increase 20 percent by this year (2007) (Ferro 2003). What is worse, the Office of Juvenile Justice reported that the juvenile offenders or children in conflict with the law, who have been relocated into the adult criminal justice system, have escalated in number. In addition, near the turn of the previous century, 40 states including the District of Columbia passed legislation, which eased legal constraints in trying juveniles as adults in t heir respective jurisdictions (Griffin et al. 1998). In order for us to understand why this occurrence cause alarm on the public and the on our justice system, we have to fully comprehend the underlying principles with regards trying juvenile offenders in adult courts which employ adult criminal laws and statutes. Likewise, it is necessary to understand the legal principles that govern young offenders and when these juveniles should not be tried as adults. All states in the United States of America including the District of Columbia permit adult criminal prosecution of juveniles under definite conditions. Under the waiver provisions, for instance, decisions of the transfer of the offender from a juvenile institution to an adult court or adult criminal institution is left to the State's juvenile courts, but clearly provides that young offenders may not be prosecuted as adult criminals unless a juvenile court judge has ordered the transfer (Griffin et al. 1998). The provisions vary fr om one another in the extent of flexibility with which the conditions allow the courts. However, under these provisions, a case against a juvenile must at least originate in juvenile court and cannot be directed anywhere else, unless there is a formal approval from juvenile court judge. In the Direct File provisions, the prosecutor determines whether to commence a case against a young offender in juvenile court or in criminal (adult) court. In Statutory Exclusion, criminal courts are bestowed jurisdiction on the classes and levels of cases involving juveniles. Under this provision, a State legislature fundamentally predetermines the question of criminal prosecution and carries out the decision, bypassing the authority of the prosecutor and the court (Roberts 2004 & Griffins 1998). Nevertheless, these provisions are bestowed to juvenile offenders under specific conditions. Most states in the US contend that the prosecution of the young offenders in adult criminal courts is a legislat ive remedy and a response to the growing violent offenses, but surprising numbers of laws in many states in the country authorize criminal trial even for non-violent offenses. Presently, 21 states permit adult prosecution of juveniles charged of offenses related to property as, for instance, arson and burglary while 19 states afforded provisions in their statutes authorizing prosecution of young people in conflict with the law - whose offenses are drug related - in adult court. Forty-six of the 50 states in this country permit issuance of a waiver for a variety of offenses including personal, property, violent and non-violent (Ferro 2003).  

INDIVIDUAL STRESS AUDIT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

INDIVIDUAL STRESS AUDIT - Essay Example has been compiled, those which I feel are potentially stressful in my life at present. I have also described the situation, which I actually currently experience as stressful. I have also described the stressful situation, which I handle well and which is not stressful any more now. I have also described the signs and symptoms of the stress I personally experience currently and the ways in which I presently attempt to manage my stress and the successful situations.   Accroding to LeFevre, Matheny and Kolt (2003), adverse situations or adverse influences make people respond differently and the response of the people can be described as a set of psychological and physical behaviour, which is called â€Å"stress†. They further added that the adverse situation or the adverse influence is an external force is called ‘stressor’ which acts on a person. De Charms (1968) defined stress as the psychological and physical changes in an individual due to external forces. Lis t of My Stressful Situations I wonder if there is any person who does not have any stressful situation in his/ her life. ... The selection committee of my university didn’t select me for the football team this year for my poor performance in the selection match 3. My father divorced my mother for another woman 4. My sister is dating with a boy whom I hate the most Situations 1. My roommate is a careless and fussy boy and he always keeps the room dirty and untidy 2. My friends and my girlfriend are angry with me as I am not able to give them adequate time since I am terribly occupied with my studies 3. My mother is broken after my father left and she is all alone at home. I need to meet her but I don’t have time Responsibilities 1. I have to score good grades in my finals so that I get a good job at the soonest 2. I have to earn my for myself and my mother and sister as there is no earning member in my family after my father 3. I have to buy a gift for my girlfriend as her birthday is close Pressures 1. I have the dual responsibility of scoring good grades and earning for my studies and liveli hood 2. I have to finish the project within two days which I have not started yet and I have a scarcity of time. 3. I need a good job as soon as possible but I need to pursue some professional courses for which I neither have time nor money Others 1. I am a very average looking person with a lean physique and with no charms in my personality and I hardly influence others 2. I am very shy and introvert Signs and Symptoms of Stress Above mentioned events, situations, responsibilities, pressures, etc. are quite stressful for me and they have affected me tremendously and I noticed many physical and psychological signs and symptoms when I am under stress. Most of the time I suffer from headaches and constipation and my mouth dries when I think about my stresses.

Argument sketching Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Argument sketching - Essay Example r; the ontological argument argues for the existence of a perfect being; an argument that is for a creator with a keen interest in humanity is the argument from design; lastly the moral argument refers to an argument that is pro moral authority (Harris 56). This argument aims at proving God’s existence mainly through the laws of logic. This can be traced back to St Anselm who was a philosopher-theologian as well as the archbishop of Canterbury in the eleventh century (Harris 62). This argues that we will be able to see God’s non-existence as being impossible once we mentally accept and internalize the concept of God. It aims at demonstrating the existence of a perfect supreme being. This can be viewed as the second proof of God’s existence. It also referred to as the cosmological argument. This looks to prove God’s existence from the fact that there is the existence of the universe. It states that the universe as it is came into existence at a certain point in the distant past (Harris 59). It also argues that nothing can logically come into existence without something or someone else brings it into existence. This is derived from the philosophical theory that nothing comes from nothing. This means that there must be another being or force outside of the universe that brought it into existence. This therefore alludes to the fact that there must be a creator of the universe who can only be God. This is also referred to as the teleological argument. This argument also has the universe at the centre of all this. It aims at proving God’s existence from the fact that our universe is well ordered. This is because that it could have been quite different from the state in which it is now in very many different ways. The laws of physics could have been very different with a completely different arrangement of stars and planets (Harris 74). This points at the existence of God since all these other versions of the universe would not have possibly allowed for

Africa and Colonial Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Africa and Colonial - Essay Example Later the British conquered and held for a period, todays Egypt, Nigeria, Uganda, and South Africa to name a few. The French controlled what today is Madagascar, Algeria, and most of West Africa. Belgium controlled the Belgium Congo, which included todays Rwanda. Rwanda is one example of how African colonization is important to understand the study of Africa. Belgium used the Tutsi as servants against the Hutu. The Hutu massacred between half a million to a million Tutsi in 1994 for grudges left over from Belgium rule. Colonization separated, lumped together, and turned African against African. The major colonizers of Africa were France, England, Germany, Belgium, and the Portuguese. The formal colonization of these nations over Africa began at the Berlin Conference 1884-1885 with the debating parties being Germany, England, and France. Although this conference really did not solve anything, the race to colonize Africa begin. With military might, new maps of the interior, the Europeans set up local governments in Africa. For example, the French, Portuguese, Germans, and Belgians set up direct governments. These governments had French, Portuguese, Germans, and Belgians in positions of power in Africa. The English ruled indirectly. They set up local power holders, then made them serve British interests. European powers were able to conquer Africa, because Africa had great travel routes. These routes helped in military and trade ventures for the Africans, but made them weak to the Europeans. Secondly, the thousands of different African tribes made unity impossible. The Europeans used this to their advantage, turning African against African. Especially after the mistreatment, Africans were afraid, but defiant. Their defiance was met by more force. In the end, the Africans submitted to the European colonists. However, their fury never abated. Today in liberated South Africa, white farmers are attacked. Rwanda has been through genocide.

Aquatics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Aquatics - Research Paper Example The same would be done with the help of briefly highlighting the literature available on the same and shedding some light on related researches and cases. Discussion Without any doubts, aquatics is one of those profession where professionals have to deal with a lot of risk and in the absence of effective risk management plans and techniques, the liability may become unbearable for the organizations. If organizations and pool managers fail to manage and deal with the risk in an effective manner then they might not only end up with losing customers due to injuries and other incidents but also with huge liability claims. Furthermore, stakeholders are also putting a lot of pressure on the staff and professionals to engage in preventive practices and fire prevention rather than fire fighting1. Risk management is present in other professions as well but the nature of aquatic risk management is much different from the generalized form of risk management. Important here to note is that aquat ic environments have a tendency to change very quickly, within hours and at times, within a few minutes. Furthermore, at many occasions, these changes are not even predictable for the experts. Therefore, aquatic risk management is not a one-time process but an on going process, which requires extensive training, enthusiasm, and commitment from the staff and the professionals2. Another very important reason why aquatic risk management is imperative is because of the general attitude of public about the hazards and risks of aquatic environments. It appears that when people enter into an aquatic environment they lose their sense of sight as well as sense of hearing. Despite the fact that the staff puts a lot of energy and money into putting as much sign boards to increase the awareness of public regarding the risks, but people are more likely to read the micro font message on billboards rather than bothering to notice the sign boards which are around them in aquatic environments3. Sudd enly in aquatic environments, sign pollution becomes an important issue. Furthermore, if there is any staff or deployment in those facilities to guide and instruct people about the risks and hazards then not only people avoid these instructions but strongly feel it as interference during their â€Å"fun time†. In short, aquatic risk management is important because it has to deal with blind and deaf people4. Many experts and professionals related to the field of aquatic risk management believe that in order to create an effective risk management, following are the seven steps, which should be kept in mind. First, the process stars with the identification of aims and objectives of risk management problem. Without any doubts, the ultimate goal of many risk management programs is to reduce the chances to injury, incidents of employees, guests and others and reduce any other risks associated with property loss. Furthermore, most professionals are more likely to stress on eliminati on and prevention of injuries, however, in more risky environments, safety of lives and prevention of any causality may become the ultimate goal. Aims and objectives also refer to the practice of quantifying them, delegating them and establishing and identifying resources to achieve those objectives. Second, once the goals and objectives have been formulated, it is important to create an assessment team. This team will

Principles of diversity equality Essay Example for Free

Principles of diversity equality Essay Outcome 1: Understand the importance of diversity, equality and inclusion. 1.1 Define what is meant by: Diversity:- Is that right of each individual to be different and to have differences from others. Equality:- the state of being equal, especially in status, rights or opportunities. Inclusion:- the action or state of including or being included within a group or structure. Discrimination:- the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age or sex. 1.2 Describe how direct or indirect discrimination may occur in the work setting. Direct discrimination: Institutional/Company: different pay levels offered for the same job, promotion offers to only a select group of employees; job offers and training opportunities being offered to individuals of a certain race or age; bullying, excluding others, provocations of colleagues or clients on the basis of their gender, age, religious beliefs, ethnicity, language, social class, sexual orientation. Indirect discrimination: Inadequate facilities put in place for those with disabilities, making demands on workforce which they deem as being disadvantageous to employees of a certain group; using overly complex terminology when providing information either members of staff or the clients Read more: Describe the potential effects of discrimination essay 1.3 Explain how practices that support diversity, equality and inclusion reduce the likelihood of discrimination. Mixing groups of individuals in situations like; training sessions encourages cohesion and fosters the opportunities for individuals to work well with each other in partnership. Introducing facilities that aid mobility as this encourages the involvement of individuals who are less mobile and makes them feel included as their needs are being taken into account. Putting in place polices that empower employees and show the individuals value to the company such as; employee of the month awards and bonuses given for consistent good work. This will increase the employees confidence in carrying out their job and want to  continue their employment contract with the company. Outcome 2: Know how to work in an inclusive way. 2.1 List key legislations and codes of practice relating to diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination in adult social care settings. Equalities Act (2001). The Employment Act (2008). Health and Social Care Act (2012). Human Rights Act (1998). Mental Capacity Act (2005). Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006). 2.2 Describe how to interact with individuals in an inclusive way. Being empathetic towards the clients situation and showing a genuine interest in their concerns and needs. Allowing and encouraging a two-way dialogue to occur between the care worker and the client using techniques such as; active listening to aid communication. Respecting individuals cultural and/or religious differences and working with them in a way that doesnt go against their beliefs or morals. 2.3 Describe ways in which discrimination may be challenged in adult social care settings. Putting in place a company policy of zero-tolerance regarding discrimination. Informing all members of staff and clients about how and when to make complaints regarding any issues of concern including discrimination. Encouraging others to challenge discrimination. Maintaining a record of discriminatory behaviour and resorting to disciplinary actions to deal with such behaviour. Routinely updating policies and procedures of organisation in relation to discrimination. Using previous discriminatory cases to aid the continuous professional development of the members of staff as they can act as an example of how they can respond and handle similar situations if and when they occur in their future working life with the company. Outcome 3: Know how to access information, advice and support about diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination. 3.1 Identify sources of  information, advice and support about diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination. Company care worker handbook. Skills for care website. Heath Social Care Information Centre website. NHS website. Healthcare Diversity Council website. 3.2 Describe how and when to access information, advice and support about diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination. An individual should access information, advice and support about diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination in instances where they believe that either them or the client who they are assisting being treated unfairly due to factors like an individuals race or ethnicity; having access to the relevant legislative rules and regulations such as; the Equalities Act (2001) or The Employment Act (2008) and the companys policies and procedures regarding diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination so that they know exactly what their employer is legally required to put into place in order to foster diversity, equality, inclusion and prevent discrimination. This information especially the companys policies and procedures will also inform the care worker of the proper procedure that needs to occur when the care worker experiences issues regarding diversity, equality, inclusion and discrimination.

Comparison of GDP and Inflation: Japan and Thailand

Comparison of GDP and Inflation: Japan and Thailand Thailand   Ã‚   That have 2 main trends will be discuss. First one is the trend during years 1996 to 1999. From years 1996 to 1999, it was a period that Thailand created the Asian financial crisis and faced the recession from the crisis until the economy recovered. In 1996, Thailand was facing export stagnation because a decline of demand from First World countries, and also opening domestic markets to outside money brought a deluge of short-term foreign investment and spurred heavy short-term borrowing from abroad, fueling a building boom (http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3406400060.html). Thailand baht was fueled by refugee capital and it was the starting of Asian Financial Crisis (http://www.economist.com/node/9432495). As a result, Thailand GDP was fallen down due to the lost confidence of investors and the stagnation of export, but that was recovered quickly. IMF’s Executive Board approved financial support for Thailand of up to about US$4billion over a 34-month period (IMF staff, Jun e 2000). Thailand government also apply monetary policy to stable the exchange rate and fostering the economy recovery, and fiscal policy to restructuring the economy. In 1998, Thailand GDP returned to positive growth. The second trend is years 2008 to 2010. Thailand was facing political crisis during this period. The anti-Thaskin protesters, known as Yellow Shirts, stage protests for several months since May 2008, and they occupy two airports on November 2008 (CNN news, May 19 2010). The protests activities were continuous until 2010. During years 2008-2010, the Thailand economy being affected that the number of tourism, the number of export and most of the government budget spent on the safety and restoration of damaged by Yellow Shirts. Thailand experienced negative growth of economy after the Asian Financial Crisis. It make many investors and tourism was getting away from Thailand market. In year 2009, the Global Great Recession made double strike on Thailand economy. Japan Japan economy was facing Lost 20 Decades from year 1990 until 2010. Japan was one of the best countries to grow Japan economy in 1980s. This period was also creating high real estate price and soaring Nikkei stock market. The Bank of Japan decide to tighten its monetary policy in year 1989, then soon the Nikkei stock bubble popped and this lead to pop real estate bubble (Jesse Colombo, June 2012). Japan experienced economic stagnation in the following years based on the GDP calculation. The main reasons of prolonged stagnation of Japanese economy in year 1990s was the stagnation of investment and stagnation of household consumption due to the decline of household wealth, stagnation of household disposal income, and the uncertainty about the future (Charles Yuji Horioka, March 2006). Bank of Japan implemented zero interest rate policy in year 1999 to boost the economy but the situation has not improved greatly. Then, Bank of Japan introduced the quantitative easing policy in year 2000 (Yutaka Kurihara, 2014). Quantitative easing policy grab much of attention of investors and the investment start to return to capital of Japan. Japan is ready to recover the economy since the internal growing of Japan is quite high that they consist of lots of information about advanced technologies and higher production of their export area, although Japan was facing high debt-to-GDP ratio which is 225.9% in year 2010. Comparison Thailand seem like had a higher GDP growth rate than Japan which may means the Thailand economy is better than Japan. However, Japan experienced Lost 20 Decades during 1990 to 2010. The GDP of Thailand also unable surpass Japan and also the potential growth of nation is lower than Japan too since Japan keep advanced technologies sector even in the period of Lost 20 Decades. For the current period, Japan is recovering their economy after the Lost 20 Decades. Thailand Thailand reach two peak of inflation rate in year 1998 and also 2008. In 2 July 1997, Thailand float Thai baht and this lead Thai baht value devalued as much as 20% a record low (History Squared, 2011). This lead the Asian Financial Crisis, most of the Asian countries were involved in this crisis and led to inflation in year 1998. Most of the Asian countries currencies were fall and led the price level rose in the period. After that, Thailand inflation rate decreased sharply by year 1999, and Thai government lower the interest rate that short-term interest rate fall to 2% in 1999 from 23% in the year 1997 in order hope to boost economy (Economic Reform in Thailand, 2013). The second inflation rate peak was placed on year 2008. It was financial crisis happened on year 2008, the price of oil rose 800% since 2006 until mid-2008 (Clifford Krauss, 2008). This led price of other commodity also increase in the period until the bubble of commodity burst. The combination of an economic crisis and soaring U.S. dollar would cause commodities prices to plunge as in 2008, when commodities prices imploded by nearly half in a mere five month (Jesse Colombo, 2015). It led deflation to Thailand in year 2009 since many commodities prices fall sharply. After the crisis passed, the economy return to supply and demand level. Japan In the period of Lost 20 Decades that Japan experienced, the decreasing rate of inflation was happened in Japan. Japan government keep their effort to prevent deflation during Lost 20 Decades. That had few causes to make Japan suffer in deflation so long time. Surplus in savings, government policy mismanagement, structural impediments, Yen appreciation and global capital flow were considered as the causes that prolonged Japan economy recover period and led to deflation due to the research of Daniel I. Okimoto. In 1997, Japan experienced the peak of inflation rate. It was the Asian currencies crisis period since most of the Asian countries also been affected by devaluation of currencies. In April 1997, Japan government rose the consumption tax rate from 3% to 5%. The economy continued to deteriorate in 1998: the year 1998 recorded negative growth for the first time since 1976 (Takatoshi Ito and Andrew K. Rose, 2006). Japan economy was slowed down that led the people consumption lesser and lesser in Japan. Deflation was continuous until year 2002 that most of the investors believe that Japan passed the Lost Decades period and start to recover Japan economy. Unfortunately, Japan economy stagnation still going on in year 2002 until 2010 that Japan people consumption still low and they save more money in bank as a result of surplus in savings. Inflation rate increased in year 2008 was the result of Global Financial Crisis, which the US housing bubble burst, in the situation almost same as described above in Thailand. The Japan Lost 20 Decades was believed that is past in year 2010 which the GDP growth was positive and inflation rate increase in a safe frequent. Comparison Thailand has higher inflation rate growth compared with Japan. Inflation rate is meaning about a country’s growth due to the people could expense more in the period. Japan must face the inflation rate to boost the economy activities to recover the Lost 20 Decades for Japan. As the graph showing, Japan inflation rate was increasing from year 2010 until now, that means Japan has no more stagnation on their economy activities that they could boost the economy back to the standard. In contrast, Thailand was getting decreasing inflation rate from year 2010 to year 2013. Thailand unemployment rate increase due to the investments of foreign countries was shift to Indonesia or Vietnam, cheaper and higher skill labor force, that made Thailand people being poor and slow down their consumption during 2010. References: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3406400060.html https://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/ib/2000/062300.htm#box1 http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/05/17/thailand.timeline/ http://www.thebubblebubble.com/japan-bubble/ https://ideas.repec.org/p/nbr/nberwo/12142.html http://www.todayscience.org/JFE/article/jfe.v2i2p77.pdf http://historysquared.com/2011/10/14/a-look-at-thailand-during-the-asian-financial-crises/ http://finance.mapsofworld.com/economy-reform/thailand/ http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/14/business/economy/14commodities.html?pagewanted=all http://aparc.fsi.stanford.edu/research/causes_of_japans_economic_stagnation http://www.nber.org/chapters/c0092.pdf Construction Project Delay: Causes and Effects Construction Project Delay: Causes and Effects In this chapter, I will discuss types, causes and effects of delay of project in the construction industry. Besides that, I will also discuss the method to minimize the delays happening in construction industry 2.2 Type of Delay In construction industry, there are the categories of delays used in determining delay damage as shown in table 2.1 Figure 2.1 Types of Delay 2.2.1 Excusable delays Excusable delay as define a delay that is due to an unforeseeable event beyond the contractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s or the subcontractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s control. Usually, based on common general provisions in public agency specifications, delay resulting from the following events would be considered excusable such as fires, floods, owner-directed changes, errors and omissions in the contract drawing, unusually severe weather and etc. Excusable delays can be further classified into excusable with compensation and excusable without compensation. 2.2.1.1 Excusable with compensation Compensation delays are caused by the owner or the owners agents. An example of this would be the drawings late release from the owners architect. An excusable, compensable delay normally leads to a schedule extension and exposes the owner to financial damages claimed by the contractor. In this scenario, the contractor incurs additional indirect costs for both extended field office and home office overhead and unabsorbed home office overhead. 2.2.1.2 Excusable delays without compensation Non-compensable delays are caused by third parties or incidents beyond the control of both the owner and the contractor. Examples typically include acts of God, unusual weather, strikes, fires, acts of government in its sovereign capacity, etc. In this case, the contractor is normally entitled to claim extension of time but no compensation for delay damages 2.2.2 Non-excusable delays Non-excusable delays are cause by lack of performance of the contractor on the construction project. This delay can be cause by underestimates of productivity, improper project planning and scheduling, poor site management and supervision, wrong construction methods, equipment breakdowns, unreliable subcontractors or suppliers. Therefore, it is contractor responsibilities to continue their work with no entitlement to claim for extension of time or delay damages until they completed the project. For instance, a contractor failure to provide an adequate material to completed their job. 2.2.3 Concurrent Delay Concurrent delay is a problem that happening on most of the construction industry project. This issue arises when two or more delaying event at the same time in a project cannot complete on time. In this situation, both owner and contractor are responsible for the delay. Commonly concurrent delays which involve any two or more excusable delays result in extension of time. When excusable with compensation and non-excusable delays are concurrent, an extension of time can be issued or the delay can be distribution between the owner and the contractor. Concurrent delay can be categories in three types of delays: If excusable and non-excusable delays occur concurrently, the contractor only to allow claim for extension of time: If excusable with compensation and excusable without compensation delays occur concurrently, the contractor is entitle to claim extension of time but no delay damages: If two excusable with compensation delays occur concurrently, the contractor is entitled to claim extension of time and delay damages. For instance, a concurrent delay would be if the owner failure to give more detail regarding either using ceramic tile or homogeneous tile for toilet floor finishes. But at the same time contractor made with own decision and using ceramic tile for toilet floor finishes but actually owner plan using homogeneous tile. In this situation, the contractor cannot claim for damages. It is because contractor is not follow owner instruction but he can claim for extension of time with owner failure to give more detail of drawing 2.3 Causes of delays Figure 2.2 Causes of delays Based on the researched done through by journal, books, and some other reference. Project delay can be causes by a lot of parties which is shown in the Figure 2.2. They are include client, contractor, consultant, labour, material, equipment, financial and some external causes. 2.3.1 Caused of Client Related Delays Figure 2.3 Factors of client related delays 2.3.1.1 Lack of experience of client in construction According to Koushki, et al. (2005) identified factors of lack of experiences of client in construction project have high influence to the causes of delays. Some of the project delay cause by client due to not enough experience especially fresh developer. Most of the time, client facing a problem and do not know how to solve it immediately because of no experience. During client finding the way to solve the problem, some of the work could not progress. Finally, the whole project delay because of some particular work delay. 2.3.1.2 Change order According to Odeh and Battaineh (2002) mentioned the factors of change orders that contribute to causes of delaysà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Client always change the design during the construction period, during the same time that will affect whole project delay. It is because contractor cannot carry out his work until the latest drawing issue by architect. Consequently contractor cannot be done within the contract period. Most of the current project delay because of change order by client. For instance, a project almost complete but client change certain part of design and instruct contractor carry out the additional work. After done the whole project, the contractor found out was exceeding contract period. 2.3.1.3 Client interference According to Long, et al. (2004) studied the factors client interference that contributes to causes of delays in construction project. Some of the client instruct contractor to carry out additional work without ask architect promise. During the contractor carry out additional work, some of the work could not progress and it will be delay immediately. On the other hand, client do not follow the procedure such as did not mention architect issue an architect instruction. Finally it will affect the whole project delay. 2.3.2 Causes of contractor related delay Figure 2.4 Factors of contractor related delay 2.3.2.1 Inadequate contractor experience Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) studied the factors of inadequate contractor experience as contributor to causes of delays. Long, ET al. (2004) mentioned the factors of inadequate contractor experience that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. Battaineh (2002) identified the factors of inadequate contractor experience as contributors to causes of delays. In construction industry, some of the delay projects are facing a problem during construction period. But at the same time contractor could not solved the problem immediately because of no experience. During the contractor finding method to solve the problem, some of the works totally stop because of that problem. After the problem was solved, those work keeping continue but run out from the schedule. Finally, the whole project will influence delay. 2.3.2.2 Inaccurate time estimate According to Long, et al. (2004) identified the factors of inaccurate time estimating that contribute to causes of delays in construction project.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Time estimates are important as inputs into other technique used to manage and structure for all projects. An inaccurate time estimation technique may cause a project delay. For instance, in some delay project, the contractor do not allowed time for some common problem always happen during the construction stage such as breakdown of equipment, miss deliveries by supplies, accidents and emergencies and so on. Because of this problem the actual time will run out from the estimated. So, the whole project could be facing delay. 2.3.2.3 Inaccurate of cost estimate According to Long, et al. (2004) also mentioned that, the factors of inaccurate cost estimating that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. Construction estimating errors can be very expensive and embarrassing. Inaccurate of cost estimate contribute a lot of cause such as wrong measurements from contract drawing, using incorrect units of measure, material improperly priced and the most common mistakes in arithmetic . Sometime contractor because of inaccurate of cost estimate measurement again for that particular work. Finally, due to re-measurement time some of the work will influence delay and it will also affect whole project to delay. 2.3.2.4 Poor site management and supervision Battaineh (2002) studied that, the factors of poor site management and supervision as contributors to causes of delays. Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) identified the factors of poor site management and supervision that contribute to causes of delays. In construction industry, some of the project team a lack of management and supervision due team member without any experience and skill such as hire person who are fresh graduate. Once they facing problem but do not know how to solve it. Besides that, some of the supervisor did not cooperation with their team member due to lack of communicated. Finally, because of cannot solve the problem immediately the whole project influence delay. 2.3.3 Causes of Consultant Related Delays Figure 2.5 Factors of consultant related delays 2.3.3.1 Inadequate consultant experience According to Long, et al. (2004) studied the factors of inadequate consultant experience as contributors to causes of delays. In construction industry, they are many consultants carry out their work without experience. Besides that, there are many causes of a consultant without experience which include different site conditions, mismanagement and maladministration, site access restrictions, defective plan and/or specification. For instances, some of the architects only concentrated in certain part of building and do not have any experience in other type. Once architect design on that particular type of building without experiences, he will facing a lot of mistake and no ideas during design and because of this architect will delay issue the drawing. Finally, the works cannot process and it will affect the whole project delay. 2.3.3.2 Poor design and delay in design According to Ogunlana, et al.(1996) mentioned the factors of poor design and delay in design that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. Design is every important to any project, without good design the whole project will influence delay. It is because in a project if facing poor design that will facing demolish and rebuilt again. This problem happens because of the designer lack of experience. For instance, an architect designs a column in the middle of classroom. Once the contractor without any experience and construct the work exactly shown in the drawing. Finally 2.3.3.3 Incomplete drawing and detail design Long, et al. (2004) identified the factors of incomplete drawing and detail design as contributors to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1996) studied the factors of incomplete drawing and detail design that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. During construction, the contractor is carrying out the work but because of drawing is unclear and none very detail shown in the drawing. He could not continue the work with problem, so the works have to stop immediately until get more detail of that particular drawing from consultant responds. Because of without detail drawing the work could not be progress, so it will affect the tat particular work delay and it will also influence the whole project delay. 2.3.4 Causes of labour related delays Figure 2.6 Factors of labour related delays 2.3.4.1 Labour supply Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) identified the factors of slow labor supply that contribute to causes of delays. Odeh and Bataineh (2002) in their research identified à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the factors of labor supply as contributors to causes of delays. Besides material, the labour also consider as major source in the construction industry. Generally, labour are categories into two groups such as skilled workers and unskilled workers. In construction industry without labour project could not run. For instance, during construction, materials are ready to but no worker carrying out the work. During the same time because of no worker to progress of work, the project will confront project delay. 2.3.4.2 Shortage of skilled worker According to Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) mentioned the factor of shortage of skill labor is the most important factor that contributed to causes of delays. Skilled worker is a worker who has some special skill, knowledge and ability in his job and also gets highest pay such as plasterer, carpenter, painter, and concreter. Those skilled workers are learning the skills on the job. In construction, some contractors do not hire skilled workers because of higher labour cost and he employs some unskilled workers. At the same time skilled workers do not want get the job from the contractor with lower labour cost. Finally the unskilled workers could not complete the work on time. So, because of shortage of skilled worker affect whole project delay. 2.3.4.3 Labor of productivity According to Ogunlana, et al. (1996) studied the factor of labor productivity having high influence to causes of delays. Labor of productivity; generally define as output per labour hour. There are many factors that influence on the labour productivity. One of the factors is workers experience, labour with high experience and high skills in field leads to high performance at workplace. Besides that, attitude also will affect productivity of labour. For instance, a worker can lay one meter square per hour but because of lazy. Finally he using three hours to finish laid the brick wall. Because of this factor, the progress work delay and it will also influence the whole project delay. 2.3.5 Causes of Material related Delay Figure 2.7 Factors of material related delay 2.3.5.1 Shortage of construction materials Koushki, et al. (2005) mentioned that, factor shortage of construction material that contribute to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of shortage of material as a factor to causes of delay. Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) studied that factors shortage of material as contributors that contribute to causes of delays. Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) identified the factor of shortage of material that contribute to causes of delays. Material shortage is a potential source of construction delay. The major causes of material shortage is demand exceed supply. In construction have a lot type of material and the three main courses are cement, formwork and steel bar. Besides that, material is one of the main sources in construction industry. It is because without material project cannot construct. If a project facing the material shortage problem will be delay. For instance, a project having shortage ceramic tiles even though the labours ready for tiling. In this situatio n, the project will facing delay project. 2.3.5.2 Late delivery of materials Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of late delivery of material as a factor to causes of delay. Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) studied the factor of late delivery of material that contribute to causes of delays. Late delivery of material as a supplier fault due to high market demand; however the long procedure of the purchasing order from head office was complained. In construction, it factor is similar to the material shortage such as the labour ready for work but no material to do their work. Once contractor cannot receive the material on time that will be delay work and it will also affect project delay. For example, workers want to install the windows but without frame because of late delivery to site. So, the work will be delay and it will affect project delay. 2.3.5.3 Poor quality of construction materials Koushki, et al. (2005) mentioned that factor poor quality of material that contribute to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of poor quality of material as a factor to causes of delay. Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) studied the factor of poor quality of material that contribute to causes of delays. Poor quality of material is construct building with using poor quality of material. The contractor has intention to cheat owner to earn more profit by change the quality of material such as concrete. For instance, a contractor cast a column with using Y 20 steel bar but actual in contract drawing is Y 25. After site staff done the inspection for this column and found that the steel bar inside column is Y 20 and ask contractor demolish the column to rebuild. In this case, time taken to rebuild the column will also affect project delay. 2.3.5.4 Escalation of material prices Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of escalation of material prices as a factor to causes of delay. Wiguna and Scoot (2005) studied the factor of escalation of material prices was one factor that contribute to causes of delays. Escalation of material prices will cause shortage material in construction. It is because the market rate is keeping increasing. Some of the contractor does not buy the expensive material. During same time, the construction without material cannot run so the project will influence the project delay. For instance, a contractor because of material cost of market demands higher and does not make any order for material until material shortage. Finally, the construction cannot run without material and it will affect delay project also. 2.3.6 Causes of Equipment Related Delays Figure 2.8 Factors of Equipment related delays 2.3.6.1 Insufficient number of equipment According to Ogunlana, et al. (1998) identified the factors of insufficient numbers of equipment is the most significant factors that contribute to causes of delays. In construction stage, contractors are facing not enough machinery to produce work. It is because some of the contractors do not have a large capital to purchase that machinery due to higher cost. Once the projects carry out with not enough machinery, it will influence whole project delay. For instance, there are two works to be done by using towel crane but in site only one towel crane available. Finally, two of work could not be done at the same time due to not enough towel cranes. 2.3.6.2 Frequent equipment breakdown McCaffer (1998) studied the factors of equipment breakdown as contributors to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1998) mentioned the factor of frequent equipment breakdown is the most significant factors that contribute to causes of delays. In construction industry, some of the machinery always breakdown due to improper using by worker such as do not follow the instruction. For instance, machinery only can support for five hundred kilograms of material but during worker using that machinery and his carry out six hundred kilograms of material. Finally, the machinery will breakdown. Once machinery breakdown, the work will be stop immediately and affect some work delay. Finally, because of machinery breakdown the whole project will also influence delay. 2.3.6.3 Shortage of Equipment Parts According to Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) identified the factor of shortage of equipment parts that contribute to causes of delays. After machinery breakdown, the technical carry out the repair work for the breakdown of equipment. During the same time, some part of machinery none have stock in market. Because of no spare part to repair the machinery, some of the works facing stop progress immediately. Consequently, it will influence whole project to be delay. 2.3.7 Causes of Financial Related Delays Figure 2.9 Factors of Financial related delays 2.3.7.1 Clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties According to Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) identified the factors of clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties as contributor to causes of delays. During the construction, client will face some financial problem arise from unanticipated emergencies or financial mismanagement such as global financial crisis. Besides that, a client proposes a new development without borrow term loan or bridging loan from the bank. On the other hand, improper cost planning is a most serious problem for those clients facing in current delay project. For instance, during pre-construction stage a client do not planning cost properly and he will facing a lot of problem in construction stage such as no enough capital to pay contractor payment. Finally, because of contractor did not receive payment to influence whole project delay. 2.3.7.2 Delay payment to suppliers/subcontractor According to Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) mentioned the factors of inadequate fund allocation and delay payment to subcontractor/suppliers as contributor to causes of delays in construction project. Due to sub- contractor do not take their responsibility to done the work on time. The contractor will delay the payment until they complete the job. But at the same time, the sub-contractor refuse to work because of not yet receive payment. As a consequently, the whole project will be influence delay due to sub-contractor refuse to work. 2.3.7.3 Contractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties According to Ogunlana, et al. (1996) studied the factors of contractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties having high influence to causes of delays. Poor financial management has been known as one of the factors why certain project cannot complete within contract period. Because of contractor lack of experience and could not manage their capital properly. On the other hand, because of delay payment by client contractor not enough money to cover up all sub-contractors and suppliers payment. Finally, the sub-contractor and suppliers refuse to work and supply material to the site and because of this factor the whole will influence delay. 2.3.8 Causes of External Related Delays Figure 2.10 Factors of external related delays 2.3.8.1 Weather condition Odeh and Battaineh (2002) identified the factors of weather condition as contributors to causes of delays. Long, et al. (2004) mentioned factors weather condition as factors ofexternal related delays. AL-Momani (2000) studied the factor of weather condition as contributors to causes of delays in construction project. During the construction period, weather is a factor to influence the whole project delay. It because weather condition that interfere with planned activities. Some activities can process but other cannot. For instances, during the worker cast the ground floor slab, but because of raining that particular work to be delay. 2.3.8.2 Slow site clearance According to Long, et al. (2004) identified factors of slow site clearance as factors of external related delays. During begin of construction stage, the responsibility party should have to carry out their work for site clearance immediately. Without clearance the site construction work cannot process. In some delay project found that, the third party did not take their responsibility to finish the site clearance within the period. Consequently, the whole project delay because of site clearance works delay. 2.4 Effect of Delays According to Aibinu and Jagboro (2002) identified the effects of construction delays on project delivery in Nigerian construction industry. They also said that the six major effects of delays follow by rank which include time overrun, cost overrun, dispute, arbitration, litigation, and total abandonment as shown in the Table 2.11 Effects of Delay Rank Time overrun 1 Cost overrun 2 Dispute 3 Arbitration 4 Litigation 5 Total Abandonment 6 Source : Aibinu and Jagboro (2002) Table 2.11 The effect of delays 2.4.1 Time overrun Time overrun it mean contractor could not carry out their work within contract period. In generally, time overrun can be categories into two group which include excusable delays and non-excusable. Once the project facing time overrun, it will affect the progress of work cannot finish on time. Besides that, the fault party will take the responsibility to pay the relevant parties for damages because of delay. For instance, during the project almost completed, but at the same time contractor because of exceptionally implement weather cannot completed the project within contract period. In this situation the contractor entitle to claim extension of time. On the other hand, if that contractor cannot complete the work within contract period due to his own fault. So the contractor no entitle to claim extension of time and he need to pay liquated damages. As stated in Persatuan Arkitek Malaysia form 2006 (PAM form 2006), which certain clauses stating about the damages by employer due to this event. It stated that in clauses below. 2.3.1.1 Clause 22.1 Liquidated Damage and Certificate of Non-Completion If the contractor fails to complete the works by the Completion Date, and the architect is of the opinion that the same ought reasonably so to have been completed, the architect shall issue a certificate of Non-completion. Upon the issuance of the certificate of Non-Completion the contractor shall pay or allow to the Employer a sum calculated at the rate stated in the Appendix as Liquidated Damages for the period from the Completion Date to the Date of Practical Completion. The Employer may recover such sum from the Performance Bond. The Employer shall inform the contractor in writing of such deduction or such debt due to from the contractor. The imposition of Liquated Damages by the Employer shall not be taken into account by the Architect in the issuance of payment certificates and Final Certificate, and is not subject to the set-off procedures under clause 30.4 and adjudication. 2.3.1.2 Clause 23.1 Submission of notice and particulars for extension of time If the Contractor is of the opinion that the completion of the Work is or will be delayed beyond the completion Date by any of the Relevant Event stated in Clause 23.8, he may apply for an extension of time provided always that 2.3.1.3 Clause 23.8 Relevant Events Exceptionally implement weather 2.4.2 Cost overrun During construction stages, the client and contractor always facing of cost overrun. Cost overrun  is an unexpected  cost  incurred in excess of a budgeted amount, due to  cost underestimation. Cost overrun is related to time overrun, once a project cannot be done in time, it will also affect the cost of project over budget. Commonly, cost overrun always happen due to contractor own fault such as inaccurate of cost estimate and he need to take responsibility to pay owner loss and expense. For instance, a contractor because of improper cost planning due to cost overrun. Finally, the owner set of his loss and expense from the contractor interim payment. 2.4.3 Dispute In construction industry, some of project delay because of dispute between contractual parties such as client, consultants, contractor and some relevant parties. Those disputes because of client failure make payment to the contractor. Once dispute happen, the relevant parties will go through with mediation. The mediator will make a decision to solve the problem. But if one of the parties does not accept the decision made by mediator, the parties will appeal the decision with arbitrator. If both parties accept the decision and the fault parties will take responsibility to pay damages for project delay. 2.4.4 Arbitration In current delay project, some of the contractual parties do not accept the mediator decision and they appeal in arbitration. Arbitrator will also make the decision to solve the problem. But if one of the parties does not accept the decision again made by Arbitrator, they still can appeal the decision in litigation. 2.4.5 Litigation In some delay project, the relevant parties because of still do not accept with the arbitrator decision. They are appeal the result in litigation which is dispute resolution in the courts. In litigation, the parties have a trial either by a court alone or by jury. If those parties are not satisfied judgment again, then they can appeal again if they have any new evidence to proof their right. But one the parties accept with the judgment, the faulty of parties need take responsibility to pay the penalty 2.4.6 Total abandonment Total abandonment it means the whole project stop immediately because of client facing financial difficulties. Some of the current delay project totally abandoned because of clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s or contractor problem which include clients bankruptcy, contractor run away, poor marketing and sales strategies and so on. The effect of project totally abandoned will affect many parties such as contractual parties which include contractor, consultant, sub-contractor, supplier and some other relevant parties. Besides those parties, the purchasers will also suffer in cost damages due to project abandoned. 2.5 Methods of minimizing construction delays According to Nguyen, et al. (2004), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“studied the factors that can be applied as a method of minimizing of construction delays as follows: competent project manager; frequent progress meeting; accurate initial cost estimates; accurate initial time estimates; awarding bids to the right/experience consultant and contractor.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? During pre-construction stage, a client should employ a depth knowledge project manager to organize a good project team member to progress the work. Besides that, the project team member should be always discussing with the problem having during the site progress. On the other hand, contractor should be employs some employee with experience such as quantity surveyor. So that, during the time or cost estimate they can add on some unforeseen event to avoid the cost and time overrun. Furthermore, the developer should be hire some experience consultant and contractor.iot is because once they facing problem, they can refer previous project to so lve the problem immediately. So, the project can process with smoothly. According to Aibinu and Jagboro (2002), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“identified two methods to minimize or if possible eliminate time overrun were: acceleration of site activities, and contingency allowance.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? During construction stages, the contractor should carry out his responsibility to make sure the work progress can complete in time. If found that work progress are not equal to the estimate schedule. The contractor may carry out with acceleration such as hire additional worker. Besides that, the client may allow contractor standby some extra cost for unforeseen event such as accidents. According to Koushki, et al. (2005), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“revealed that the minimization of time delays and cost overruns would require: ensure adequate and available source of finance until project completion; ensure timely delivery of materials.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? During pre-construction, a client may prepare a good cash flow within the contract period. Once the client does not enough money to cover up construction cost, he can borrow a term loan or bridging loan from the bank to cover the cost until the whole project completed. It will avoid project delay due to client not enough capital. Besides that, the contractors make sure that material are order with a reliable suppliers and can receive it on time. Acco Munro Review: Lipsky’s Notion of Street-Level Bureaucracy Munro Review: Lipsky’s Notion of Street-Level Bureaucracy The Munro Review; Lipsky’s Notion of Street-Level Bureaucracy put in practice Charlotte Bindels Introduction Before an examination of the work conducted by social workers who are responsible for child protective services within the UK can take place, it is crucial to define the concept of Street-Level Bureaucracy (SLB). What does it exactly entail and who are street-level bureaucrats? Can we safely assume that social workers parallel the characteristics of street-level bureaucrats or is this assumption a false one? Social workers, in general, face enormous pressure from within the community to perform well. There is a lot at stake and the well-being of individuals needs to be protected. Thus, how could a government quantify government impact on citizens? Many scholars are still puzzled by this question as it poses many discussions. Michael Lipsky, a North American scholar, incorporated this discussion in his work on Street-Level Bureaucracy. In his book, Street-Level Bureaucracy; Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services he introduced the abovementioned term while gaining widespread rec ognition. The concept is universal as the dilemmas and constraints faced by professionals operating at the street-level include various problems and challenges. But are these problems also compatible to the social workers within the child protection services in the United Kingdom? The aim of the paper is to see whether social workers of child protective services in the United Kingdom show a resemblance to the notion of the Street-Level Bureaucracy Framework as put forward by Lipsky. This analysis will include the Final Report of The Munro Review of Child Protection as this report covers the recommendations to improve upon the child-centred system and is the prime sources for this report. Another main source describes the framework of Street-Level Bureaucracy introduced in Lipsky’s book; Street-Level Bureaucracy; Dilemmas of the individual in public services. Moreover, other concepts need to be examined as well, in order to analyze the possible relationship between social workers and street-level bureaucrats. Finally, this paper will determine whether the relationship between social workers as described in the Munro report and the SLB framework of Lipsky appears compatible or not. Conceptual Framework First and foremost, an examination is needed of the theoretical framework used by Lipsky for his book on Street-Level Bureaucracy; Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services originally published in 1980. He presents a framework that allows for comprehension of the role of public service workers when it comes to policy implementation. He argues that teachers, social workers, and judges etc. constitute the essence of street-level bureaucrats. Additionally, he acknowledges that his book draws upon observations underlining collective behavior of public service organizations. Moreover, in his book he captures the importance of locating the problems street-level bureaucrats face while doing their jobs. By analyzing Street-Level Bureaucracy it becomes more evident to identify commonalities and deficiencies between different operational surroundings. (Lipsky, 1980) Firstly, the term Street-Level Bureaucracy needs to be defined in order to comprehend the aim of this paper. Lipsky (1980) published his book on Street-Level Bureaucracy in 1980 providing a profound study of the influence of public service workers on public policy, the so-called street-level bureaucrats. The challenge, he stresses, is to find a balance between executing their jobs with considerable discretion while also serving as policy decision-makers. Examples of street-level bureaucrats typically include workers who interact directly with citizens while carrying out their jobs. Lipsky sums up teachers, judges and police officers to illustrate his point. However, for the purpose of this paper the focus will revolve around social workers as Lipsky also defines them as street-level bureaucrats. Hence, social workers must be viewed as policy shapers, not only as those who simply implement a policy. Lipsky (1980) writes that there are two ways to interpret the term of street-level bureaucrats. On the one hand, he portrays them as being equal to public services, thus highlighting that this is how citizens interact. On the other hand, as originally intended by Lipsky, street-level bureaucrats only interact with citizens during the course of their jobs while simultaneously exercising discretion. Another relevant concept to incorporate is the notion of social workers, as this paper also examines the Munro Review. While this may seem obsolete it is vital to understand the characteristics of these workers. More specifically, the social workers concerned with child protection in the UK. Can they be perceived as street-level bureaucrats? The definition of social work underwent many changes throughout the years. Globalization needs to be reckoned with as social workers nowadays face many challenges to practice their knowledge in a complex world. The core definition of social work reads as follows, Hare (2004) â€Å"The social work profession promotes social change, problem-solving in human relationships, and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance wellbeing. Utilizing theories of human behavior and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work.† Discretion, another concept used extensively by Lipsky also needs to be explored. Lipsky (1980) regards discretion as beneficial to the policy process as it enhances policy at the grass roots level. The Oxford Dictionary defines discretion as: â€Å"Thefreedomtodecidewhat should be done in aparticularsituation† (Oxford online dictionary, n.d). Carrington (2005) describes discretion as a part of the decision-making process which will lead an individual to act or not to act. Moreover, he adds that these decision-makers have the freedom to decide on an action or non-action. According to Lipsky (1980) the use of discretion is critical as street-level bureaucrats communicate with citizens every day. However, this is not an easy task as dilemmas occur more frequently making the work of individuals within the public service complex. According to Lipsky (1980), social workers are drawn to the public service since they feel the need to help others. The continuation of discretion has bo th opponents and proponents. Proponents, such as Ellis et al. (1999), see discretion as support to filling up the gaps in public policy. Opponents, however, such as Baldwin view discretion as undermining official public policy (Baldwin, 1998). Thus, discretion can be viewed in different ways. The concept of discretion is highlighted by Lipsky as the characteristics of street-level bureaucrats involve high levels of discretion as well as continuous interaction with citizens. The constraints and dilemmas faced by SLBs include insufficient resources available to the workers and in order to meet the supply demands for services increase. Furthermore, the goals set out by agencies are rather ambiguous and the measurement of performance achievement turns out to be impossible to measure. In addition, clients tend to be mostly non-voluntary. (Lipsky, 1980, p.27) Case Description In the Munro Review of Child Protection (Munro, 2011), recommendations are set out to improve upon, aiming to reform the child protection system within the United Kingdom. These recommendations are designed to eliminate the over-bureaucratization and the need for compliance and a shift towards more focus on children, hereby exploring issues and assessing the effectiveness of the received aid. The report sums up a total of fifteen recommendations, each of those belonging to a particular subject (Munro, 2011). However, for the purpose of this paper I will only examine those that are set out in chapters three, six and seven, providing three recommendations that comply with the theoretical framework of SLB by Lipsky (1980), highlighting the effect of these propositions on the work of the child protection services. Chapter three ‘A system that values professional expertise’ symbolizes the difficulties in identifying the constraints faced by social workers and their managers. Many experience that the practice puts a heavy emphasis on compliance with management criteria and guidance. Consequently, they fail to follow the effectiveness of helping children. The recommendations value a clearer focus and a revision of the guidance. Chapter six ‘Developing social work expertise’ argues that an increase in expertise of employers and individuals will positively influence the relationship with children. Chapter seven ‘The organizational context: supporting effective social work practice’ addresses the importance of continuous reviewing (Munro, 2011). In the upcoming section I will describe the three recommendations before returning to this issue in relation to Lipsky’s Street Level Bureaucracy in the analysis. First, recommendation thirteen originating from chapter seven revolves around the organizational context. More specifically, it suggests that ongoing reviewing and redesigning are significant factors in the successful functioning of the child protection services in the UK. Additionally, the effectiveness of the service will increase and thus affect the social conditions of children and families (Munro, 2011). Secondly, emerging from chapter six of the Munro review, recommendation twelve considers the notion of the cooperation between the so-called HEIs, higher education institutions, and companies. The aim of this recommendation in question is to prepare upcoming social workers for their future careers within the Child Protection Services. This cooperation will thus lead to better practice placements and the application for particular ‘teaching organization’ status. Furthermore, these high quality placements will determine the relationship between HEIs and employers (Munro, 2011). Third and finally, recommendation four as set out in chapter three focuses on the collection of information by local authorities and their partners. A combination of information collected by both actors will have positive effects on the subsequent evaluations of performances (Munro, 2011). Analysis It is of importance to see whether these recommendations, as discussed above, show any resemblance or a conflict to the Framework of Street-Level Bureaucracy as set out by Lipsky. In the Munro Review it is clearly stated that the recommendations are not to be considered as separate entities, but rather reviewed as a whole (Munro, 2011, p.10). Therefore, the analysis will seek to address the aforementioned recommendations four, twelve and thirteen accordingly. A comparison will be made between the dilemmas social workers in the UK face and those of the street-level bureaucrats; are they reconcilable or conflicting? Moreover, do these three suggestions contribute to solving the dilemmas street-level bureaucrats face on a daily basis? Judging from the outlook of Street-Level Bureaucracy, the recommendations posed for social workers within child protection services in the Munro Review comply with the framework initiated by Lipsky (1980).When trying to assess the work by Lipsky on SLB and the Munro report it seems as though both of them share the same problems and dilemmas. The problems and challenges faced by street-level bureaucrats and social workers seem to overlap one another rather than contradict. One clear example revolves around the lack of resources when carrying out jobs in child protection services as mentioned in the final report by Munro. The exact same applies to the street-level workers as Lipsky dedicates a whole chapter to the problem of resources in his book on Street-Level Bureaucracy (Lipsky, 1980), also described in the conceptual framework. The reconciliation of both seems to live up in general, however, is this still the case when analyzing the separate recommendations? The Munro review, as discussed in chapter three (recommendation four) aspires a more professional perspective when it comes to the child-centred system in order to preserve a clear focus on the effectiveness of helping children. Recommendation four promotes a more bottom up approach when it comes to implementing the suggestions set out by the Munro report. A combination is needed of locally- as well as nationally collected information to accomplish the goals mentioned in the recommendation. This indicates that a level of professionalism is required at the lower levels, or as Lipsky puts it, at the street-level as it will guarantee a focus of all parties involved. Lipsky argues that the limits on bureaucracy contribute to the debate that street-level bureaucrats are in fact professionals. This professionalization starts with the social worker who feels the need to act when control cannot be imposed from the outside (higher level). Some form of self-monitoring replaces the control exer cised by top-level managers, underlining the fact that street-level bureaucrats exercise autonomy. (Lipsky, 1980, p.201) It becomes evident that the suggestion as described above parallels Lipsky’s way of thinking. Recommendation twelve applauds cooperation between HEIs and social work students to enhance preparation for entering the real world of the child protection services. This demonstrates a compatibility with Lipsky’s foundation of Street-Level Bureaucracy. When addressing the sustainment of SLB and leadership, Lipsky mentions that in the future a New Street-Level Bureaucracy needs to be developed with particular attention to teaching and practice. The new street-level bureaucrat acknowledges the value of teaching as well as the practice involved in public services. According to Lipsky (1980, p.209): â€Å"Some of their teaching ought to be done not in universities but in the field, where there is opportunity for constant confrontation with the realities of practice.† Finally, recommendation thirteen stresses the importance of continuous reviewing and redesigning. The aforementioned suggestion described the New Street-Level Bureaucracy as a future for SLB. Lipsky also acknowledges that, in order to innovate, the development of inquiry and criticism should be kept in place. He also emphasizes that these processes are of an ongoing nature to promote continuous review moments. Both the Munro Review (Munro, 2011) and Lipksy state that these moments of review share a collective approach for improving the performance of street-level bureaucrats and Munro’s social workers (Lipsky, 1980, p. 209). Recommendation thirteen appears most feasible from the perspective of the street-level bureaucrat as they illustrate that regular interaction between themselves and citizens is crucial, hereby combatting a problem faced by many street-level bureaucrats. Both recommendations four and twelve are also feasible but not in the short-term. Judging from the above, the recommendations as put forward by Munro (2011) appear compatible with the conceptualization of Lipsky (1980). However, does this hold true for all recommendations? A brief check of the recommendations illustrates that some divergence is virtually nonexistent, as the ideas of the suggestions can be reconciled with Lipsky’s argumentation concerning Street-Level Bureaucracy. Conclusion Street-Level Bureaucracy as introduced by Lipsky in the 1980s sheds an interesting light on the involvement of these bureaucrats on policy implementation and their influence. In the final report of the Munro Review of Child Protection a total of fifteen recommendations are presented in order to increase the effectiveness of the child-centred system. Essential are the social workers executing their duties in an over-bureaucratized environment according to Professor Eileen Munro. The need for more involvement and management at the front line might show a resemblance to Lipsky’s SLB Framework at first sight. However, the need to examine this more closely is the aim of the paper. Do social workers of child protective services in the United Kingdom show a resemblance to the Street-Level Bureaucracy Framework as coined by Lipsky or not? In other words, are they in conflict or compatible? While it might seem the case that they are compatible at the first glance, the three recommendations chosen from the Munro Review should display the same in order to demonstrate this resemblance. It is evident from the analysis that the three separate recommendations present a relationship between the social workers in child protective services and the framework of SLB by Lipsky. Especially recommendations twelve and thirteen are mentioned precisely by Lipsky as well when examining his book. Hence, the outcome is therefore simple as the relationship is apparent. As a result, the recommendations appear feasible from the perspective of SLB. In particular recommendation thirteen because continuous reviewing is something that can be applied directly generating results in the short-term. Bibliography Baldwin, M. (1998). ‘The positive use of discretion in social work practice: Developingpractice through co-operative inquiry’. Issues in Social Work Education. Volume 18 Issue 2. Pp. 42-8. Carrington, K. (2005). ‘Is There A Need for Control?’. Public Administration Quarterly. Volume 29 Issue 1. Pp.140–161. Department for Education. (2011). The Munro review of child protection: final report. Retrieved from https://www.education.gov.uk. Ellis, K., Davis, A. and Rummery, K. (1999). ‘Needs assessment, street-level bureaucracy and the new community care’. Social Policy and Administration. Volume 33 Issue 3. Pp. 262-80. Evans, T.,Harris,J. (2004). ‘Street-Level Bureaucracy, Social Work and the (Exaggerated) Death of Discretion’. The British Journal of Social Work. Volume 34 Issue 6. Pp.871- 895. Oxford University Press Hare, I. (2004). ‘Defining social work for the 21st century The International Federation of Social Workers. International Social Work. Volume 47 Issue 3. Pp.407. Lipsky, M. (1980). ‘Street-Level Bureaucracy; Dilemmas of the individual in public services’. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Oxford Learner’s Dictionary (n.d.). Oxford Learner’s Dictionary. Retrieved May 12, 2015, from: http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/discretion.

A postcolonial critique of liberal peacekeeping theory

A postcolonial critique of liberal peacekeeping theory Northern Statism at the Margins:   A postcolonial critique of liberal peacekeeping theory. Today, ‘humanitarian intervention or so-called ‘muscular peacekeeping occurs in contexts known as ‘complex emergencies, which combine elements of civil war, state collapse, human rights violations, ‘criminality and humanitarian crisis.   Often, local agents have formed vested interests connected to external powers, which induce them to reproduce situations of emergency.   Mark Duffield aptly refers to the ‘security-development nexus, in which global assemblages of crisis management are connected to the local reproduction of crisis.   This nexus deploys peacekeeping and peacebuilding as alternatives to recognising the impact of neoliberalism and imperialism on development (****).   Duffields analysis resonates with the idea of crisis-management in the work of Gayatri Spivak (1990: 97-8), who portrays crisis as a constant situation in a postcolonial world where the North constantly wards off the traumatic effects of colonialism.   While clear fro m official documents, this status of responses to the South as crisis management is not apparent in the fantasmatic discourse of public pronouncements and media coverage.   In this context, it becomes crucial to the critique of colonial power to simultaneously see the process of crisis management and its ideological construction to repress the colonial trauma.   An examination of liberal theories of peacekeeping must show their complicity in both these processes. This paper will pursue an approach of ‘seeing together in relation to liberal theory, by reading this theory together with the intervention in Somalia.   It will thus seek to draw out the complicities between false and oppressive assumptions in theory and colonial actions (and failures) in practice.   The main purpose of this paper will be to establish that liberal and instrumentalist peacekeeping theorists share a number of colonial assumptions.   While drawing on postcolonial studies, the approach will also engage with ethnography, anarchism and cultural studies as means of providing multiple angles from which to see situations.   Multivocity is deployed to approximate a complex situation by viewing it from a number of different directions at once, each viewpoint being taken as an incomplete perspective.   Postcolonial theory will here be shadowed firstly by Richard J.F. Days anarchist critique of liberalism, to demonstrate the complicity and interchangeability of c olonial and statist standpoints.   Secondly, it will be traced through reflections on the intervention in Somalia by anthropologists and postcolonial theorists.   While recognising the danger of epistemological violence in the Northern anthropologists representation of the Other, such accounts are useful in exposing the structural gap between the theoretical framing of the situation and the situation as it appears from a more nuanced engagement.   There are doubtless also gaps between the anthropologists reconstruction and the immanent discourse of everyday life, but for the purposes of this paper it is necessary only that the anthropological account be closer to this discourse than is that of the normative theorists.   The article focuses on three related liberal theorists: Nicholas Wheeler, C.A.J. Coady and Fernando Tesà ³n.   The theorists discussed here are similar in their general frame, though varying in the degree of subtlety with which they express it.   Coady offers a more subtle theory that the other authors, but his subtlety supplements rather than overriding the performative effectivity of liberal discourse.   In this article, we treat them as part of a single discourse, and trace their colonial logic through a series of five interlinked assumptions which can be traced through all the theorists discussed. 1. Northern privilege as universalism The first problematic assumption is the view that a desituated Northern agent can assert and establish the content of a universal ethics.   Most often this is constructed in opposition to a straw-man of relativism.   It is not, however, the universalist stance which is most crucial to their colonial status.   Rather, it is the fact that they believe universally true positions can be established by reference solely to Northern experiences and values.   Their approach is thus colonial in foreclosing the need for dialogue with difference.   Northern standpoints are privileged by means of a separation between marked and unmarked terms.   The unmarked term of the civilised world becomes the exclusive referent for justifications of approaches to the ‘uncivilised other.  Ã‚   Hence, the ‘civilised world is ethically tautological: its relation to its Others is justified by its own values, which are the relevant referent because it is ‘civilised, a status it po ssesses by virtue of its values.   This reinforces the view that, despite the tenuousness of its moral realism, liberal cosmopolitanism is a paradigmatic ‘royal science, seeking to give a certain Law to its readers to provide a stable basis for moral order.   As Richard Day writes of Kymlicka, liberal theory produces ‘an utterance that does not anticipate a rejoinder (78).   The construction of monologism takes different forms in each theory.   Wheeler rests his account of the normative force of the duty to intervene on a liberal international relations (IR) perspective which is pitted mainly against the Realist view that states are incapable of normative concern.   His main concern is thus to show that normative restrictions, even if used or formulated in self-interested ways, can still be binding on states (2004: 4, 7, 24).   This sidesteps the question of how ethical positions should be reached, but has a symptomatic side-effect.   This construction of international normativity thus focuses on the emergence of normative communities among states (e.g. 2004: 23, 44).   Stateless societies can be the objects of intervention, but are excluded from the formation of the normative community which legitimates it, effectively relegated to terra nullius by the absence of a relevant international claimant not empty of people as ‘bare life, but e mpty of morally relevant agents, people who ‘matter as normative voices.   Things get no better when Wheeler briefly enters the field of discussion of how positions should be reached, rendering this process the exclusive province of the ‘values of civilized societies (2002: 303).   Hence, ‘civilised societies ask themselves if they are entitled to intervene; nobody thinks to ask the recipients.   In practice, this leads to a situation where the   UN believed that no consent was needed to intervene in Somalia due to the absence of a state able to give such consent (Wheeler 2002: 183).   Fernando Tesà ³n offers the most unreconstituted variant of the universalist global-local.   He adopts a strongly realist moral ontology in which moral truths are absolutely independent of their origins (Tesà ³n 2001:12).   Having asserted ontologically that such truths exist, he nevertheless provides no clear guide to the epistemological means by which they can be known.   But what he does not say, he shows by his performance as speaker of ethical ‘truths.   His reference is to a Northern in-group connected to the dominant fantasy frame, as for instance when he writes of ‘the shock we felt over the Srebrenica massacre (2001: 44).   The type of subject who felt shock at this juncture is of a certain type: tuned into the global media, experiencing the events of Bosnia from the outside, contained in a sphere of safety in which such events are shocking rather than horrifically quotidian and predictable.   This ‘we excludes by gradations the Srebrenica vic tims themselves, whose emotions were likely much sharper than mere shock; the solidarity activists, Muslim and secular, who would be angry but unsurprised at the Serbian atrocity and the UN betrayal; and the other recipients of intervention, the Somalis, Rwandans and so on, whose reactions remain opaque.   Like Tesà ³n, Coady is a moral realist who views ethics as a form of knowledge allowing universal claims and derived from human nature (2002: 13-14, 18).   This position is counterposed to a simplified view of relativism (2002: 14), and again, its ontological firmness is undermined by its silence on epistemology.   No method is provided for distinguishing in practice between relative and universal positions, though such judgements are most definitely made in practice (2002: 16).   Again, it seems that the universal truth is established solely by Northern agents.   One establishes truth through the ‘courts of reason, feeling, experience and conscience, which may or may not produce an obvious answer (2002: 14).   Being internal to the desituated Northern observer, these ‘courts do not require any accountability to non-Northern Others, or any kind of reflexivity.  Ã‚   A Northern subject-position is introduced performatively.   Hence for instance, reactions of Northern media viewers are deemed facts of human nature (2002: 29, 36).   Hence it is clear that, while Others are allowed to make claims in these courts, but the judge remains resolutely Northern.   In practice, such universalism, operating as a global-local, provides space for linguistic despotism.   Deleuze and Guattari have argued that the persistence of despotism after the end of absolutist states relies on the despotic functioning of transcendentalist language (Anti-Oedipus 207).   In peacekeeping discourse, this transcendentalism is expressed especially in the binary between civilised and uncivilised, which creates the conditions for sovereignty and states of exception.   One can thus think of peacekeeping violence in terms of law-founding violence, a suspension of ethics in the creation of a statist order.   Hence, Hardt and Negri are right in arguing that ‘[m]odern sovereignty†¦ does not put an end to violence and fear but rather puts an end to civil war by organizing violence and fear into a coherent and stable political order.   Peacekeeping in the dominant discourse is the violence which forms a bridge between ‘anarchy (the demonised Other) and liberal-democracy, cutting through complexity with the simplicity of brute force (Debrix 110).   The effects of this discursive asymmetry are made clear in Sherene Razacks investigation of peacekeeping violence.   Razacks book focuses on instances of torture and murder by Canadian peacekeepers in Somalia, and accounts for such violence as expressions of discourses of superiority (10).  Ã‚   Razack argues that Canadian peacekeepers in Somalia committed atrocities because of their identity as agents of a civilised nation operating in a hostile, otherworldly context.   They use such categories to construct an ‘affective space of belonging (24).   The identity of Canadian peacekeepers as citizens of a civilised nation lead to the denial of personhood to Somali Others (Razack 9).   The stance as civilised outsiders leads to violence through the operation of a binary of civilised versus savage which is inherently racialised (13).   The civilisers are counterposed to the ‘dark corners of the earth in a narrative which places Northern peacekeepers outside history (12).  Ã‚   They are assigned the task of sorting out problems of Southern others at some risk to themselves (32).   ‘History is evacuated and the simplest of stories remains: more civilized states have to keep less civilized states in line (48).   Sites such as Somalia thus become viewed as utterly hostile, sites of absolute evil in which anarchy blurs with terrain and climate (15, 84).   Since the South is constituted as an inferior category, peacekeepers enter a space where their ability to relate to others humanity is impeded (54, 155).   Such black holes, or extraordinary spaces, become sites of exception and emergency (44).   Excluded from dialogue by the myth of its absolu te evil, the Other is taken to understand little but force (38-9, 93).   Canadian peacekeepers involved in abuses were acting on a narrative bearing little resemblance to their actual situation in a largely peaceful town (73).   They in effect went looking for enemies, scheming to lure and trap Somalis who were then assumed to fit stereotypes (79-81).   The narrative of imposing order amidst chaos creates conditions in which peacekeepers initiate conflict to provide a context in which to respond overwhelmingly and brutally.   Paradoxically, peacekeepers thereby often become unable even to keep the peace between themselves and their local hosts, let alone to impose it among locals.   2.   State as necessary; social order The second problematic grouping of assumptions concern the social role of the state.   Liberal theorists view the state as identical with or essential to society, and as something without which a decent life is impossible.   This is taken as a truism.   As Richard Day argues, liberal scholars systematically ignore arguments that stateless life might be preferable to life under the state, in an intellectual doubling of the move of liberal states to ruthlessly suppress movements aspiring to stateless life.   Despite their criticisms of particular state policies, liberals consistently think about social life from the standpoint of the state.   As Day writes, liberalism identifies with the state by adopting its subject-position (79).   This fixation on the state expresses itself normatively in the attachment of overriding significance to themes of order, security and stability.   For instance, the UN resolution on Somalia called for action ‘to restore peace, stability and law and order (cited Lyons and Samatar 34).   On the other side, metonymic slippage is established between terms like statelessness, lawlessness, anarchy, chaos and barbarism.   This conceptual conflation combines into a single concept at least four distinct phenomena:   state collapse as such, the collapse of society (such as everyday meanings and relations), the existence of a situation of civil war, and the existence of a set of ‘lawless actions similar to criminality (such as murder, torture, rape, armed robbery and extortion).   This runs against the warnings of more informed empirical scholars who emphasise the need to disaggregate these phenomena (Menkhaus State Collapse 405, 407).   On an explanatory level, statist authors tend to attribute the other aspects of a complex emergency, particularly social conflict and ‘lawless actions, to the absence of a state (or of the right kind of state).   Hence, they fail to distinguish between peaceful and warring stateless societies, or between ‘lawless stateless societies and those with some degree of diffuse ‘governance.  Ã‚   A society such as Somalia is stateless, hence necessarily beset by civil war and social predation.   As a result, it is assumed that the response to problems related to civil war and ‘lawlessness must be resolved by the restoration or construction of a proper state.   An absence is taken as the explanation for various effects, with no sense of what specific forces cause these effects.   The possibility that the worst problems in complex emergencies could be mitigated instead by moving towards a more peaceful and less predatory type of statelessness a possibility at the forefront of the empirical literature on Somalia for example is simply ruled out in advance.   Also excluded from the frame is the need to establish and engage with contingent causes of intergroup conflict.   These themes can be traced through the work of the authors under discussion.   Wheeler deems ‘state breakdown and a collapse of law and order a sufficient cause for intervention (2002: 34).   In referring to situations in which ‘the target state had collapsed into lawlessness and civil strife (2002: 2), he clearly conflates statelessness, ‘lawlessness and civil war: state collapse itself means ‘lawlessness and civil strife; this is what a society becomes when a state collapses.   Furthermore, ‘lawlessness and the ‘breakdown of authority are taken to be the cause of famine in Somalia (2002: 176, 206), notwithstanding the continued absence of state authority in the famine-free years since 1994.   Wheeler also rather strangely refers to state-building as the removal of ‘the gun from political life (2002: 306).   States are not known for their lack of guns.   Writing in 2002 by which time Somalia had experienced a stateless peace for nearly a decade   Wheeler argues that ‘[d]isarming the warlords and establishing the rule of law were crucial in preventing Somalia from falling back into civil war and famine (2002: 190).   What Somalia needed, he decided, was a ‘law-governed polity (2002: 173).   To this end, he advocates ‘the imposition of an international protectorate that could provide a security framework for years, if not decades, to come (2002: 306), effectively the recolonisation of the country.   In constructing criteria for the success of an intervention, Wheelers position is again ambiguous.   His exact demand is that a successful intervention establish ‘a political order   hospitable to the protection of human rights (2002: 37).   Yet when he discusses Somalia, and faces the problem that humanitarian relief and state-building were contradictory goals, he takes a pro-statebuilding position (2002: 189-90).   This can be interpreted to mean that he assumes that only a statist order could possibly be hospitable to human rights, notwithstanding the appalling human rights record of the previous Somali state.   Yet there is no reason why local polities could not be assessed in terms of human rights (Menkhaus and Pendergast, 2).   In Tesà ³ns account, a Hobbesian position on state collapse, including the identity of state collapse, societal collapse, ‘lawlessness and civil war, is explicitly advocated.   ‘Anarchy is the complete absence of social order, which inevitably leads to a Hobbesian war of all against all (2001: 7).   People are thus prevented from conducting ‘meaningful life in common (2001: 7).   It is clear that state and society are so closely linked here as to be indistinguishable; it is left unclear if the ‘absence of social order means the absence merely of the state or of other forms of social life.   Given that contexts such as Somalia do not in fact involve the collapse of all social life, it must be assumed that the former is being inferred from the latter.   We see once more the reproduction of the conflation of statelessness with a range of problems, in apparent ignorance of the possibility of other kinds of statelessness.   The solution is taken to be pervasive imposition of liberal social forms.   Humanitarian aid simply addresses ‘the symptoms of anarchy and tyranny, whereas building ‘democratic, rights-based institutions addresses a central cause of the problem and does ‘the right thing for the society (2001: 37).   As a result, situations of anarchy necessarily lead to barbaric interpersonal behaviour which is seriously unjust, causing a ‘moral collapse of sovereignty and a loss of the right to self-government (2001: 2-3).   The difference between statist societies and stateless societies is not, he tersely declares, a matter of legitimate dispute.   The difference is a matter of what all ‘reasonable views will accept and what they will not (2001: 13-14).   This boundary reproduces the tautological ethical stance of the Northern agent.   While emotively related to the extreme effects of civil war and predatory violence, this position in effect declares any stateless society to be beyond the pale regardless of whether it displays these characteristics.   The gesture of Schmittian sovereignty, deciding on the exclusion of those deemed unreasonable, is particularly dangerous given that intervention happens in contexts where the majority of local agents show such characteristi cs.   Peacekeepers primed to enter situations deemed uncondonable are doomed to violent contact with local agents (including ‘victims who do condone them, because their very frame is constructed to exclude engagement.   Again in Coadys work, the assumption that states exist for benevolent purposes is prominent.   States are viewed as responsible for the protection of citizens (2002: 11-12).   Intervention can legitimately be aimed at ‘failed or profoundly unstable states (2002: 21), and has the goals of ‘ensuring political stability and enduring safety (2002: 30), liberal code for state-building.   It is not unusual in peacekeeping theory to find a distinction drawn between ordinary human rights (identified with concrete violations) and extraordinary human rights (identified with the collapse of legitimate state power), a binary which ethically voids the very concept of rights by identifying its actualisation with a particular social order.   In other varieties, one finds it in distinctions between truly shocking and merely wrong forms of violation, between ‘extremely barbarous and mundane abuses, or between law and order as a primary goal of intervention and human security as a secondary luxury (see Coady 2002: 16, 28, Tesà ³n 2001: 37, Walzer Just and Unjust Wars 108, Lund 2003: 28-9, 47-8, Paris 2004: 47-8).   This serves to put the denial of rights, or of the state, in the South (or rather, its crisis-points) in an incommensurable category distinct from human rights abuses in and by the North (and its Southern allies).   With human rights deemed impossible in a stateless society, rights-violation is excused as ‘law-creating violence, the creation of an order where rights become possible, but which does not require prefigurative recognition of rights in the present, a position not dissimilar to the telos of socialism in Stalinist ideology.   The declaration of justice and rights as the purpose of the state sits uncomfortably with the kind of state likely to result in practice from statebuilding in contexts such as Somalia.   Clearly, Tesà ³n has transmuted his normative position on what states should do into an essentialist position on what states are, which leaves him with a project of building a state per se, without regard for whether the project or the resultant state serves the ascribed goals.  Ã‚   In the meantime, the patently obvious existence of customary rights in societies such as Somalia is conveniently ignored.   Presumably, as rights of the ‘uncivilised, these rights do not count as fully ‘human.   In practice, the effects of such a statist frame are to disengage peacekeepers from populations they are supposed to be rescuing, constructing them as epistemologically-privileged bearers of a project of social reconstruction which is in the interests, regardless of the wishes, of the locals.   This framework produces a paradigmatically colonial arrogance.   Peacekeepers misperceived unfamiliar institutions as an absence of institutions, leading to racist effects.   Empirical scholars have approached Somalia with a frame distorted by such statism, as when Lyons and Samatar portray the country as a ‘Hobbesian world without law or institutions, divided between ‘the most vulnerable and ‘the most vicious (Lyons and Samatar 7; c.f. Makinda ****).   In practice, the Somali intervention was framed by Northern insecurities about ‘disorder in the context of global neoliberalism.   According to one cultural analyst, the intervention was an attempt to suture th e field of global disorder, acting out a predetermined script in an attempt to create an appearance of fixed order, namely, neoliberalism as the end of history (Debrix 97-9).   This suture is necessary because of the gap separating neoliberal ideology from the actuality of global disorder (107).   It was to fail because an excess of uncontrollable images arising from local difference began to disempower the global order (Debrix 126).   In Somalia, peacekeepers found themselves in a society with very different assumptions about state power. According to Menkhaus, ‘there is perhaps no other issue on which the worldviews of external and internal actors are more divergent than their radically different understanding of the state (Menkhaus State Collapse 409).   ‘For many Somalis, the state is an instrument of accumulation and domination, enriching and empowering those who control it and exploiting and harassing the rest of the population (Menkhaus Governance 87).  Ã‚   Hence, statebuilding was misconceived as necessary for peacebuilding in a setting where it was virtually impossible.   Menkhaus and Pendergast argue that the ‘radical localization of politics in Somalia is often misunderstood as disorder and crisis, when in fact it is part of the functioning of local social life.  Ã‚   ‘The challenge to the international community is to attempt to work with this â€Å"stateless† pol itical reality in Somalia rather than against it.   It is a myth to see the intervention as rebuilding a state, since an effective state has never existed in Somalia (Menkhaus State Collapse 412).   Somalia has historically been resistant to the implantation of the state-form, and previous colonial and neo-colonial states, arising mainly as channels for global patronage flows, were caught between the extractive and despotic use of concentrated power by the clan which dominated the state and moves to balance against this excessive power by other clans.   Even such an artificial state has been made impossible by changing conditions (Menkhaus and Pendergast 2-3).   Attempts to rebuild a centralised state have exacerbated conflict between clan militias, which compete for the ‘potential spoils of such a state (Menkhaus and Pendergast 13).   With the capital viewed as the site or ‘house of state power, the battle for the state encouraged clan conflicts for control of the capital (Jan 2001: 81; )    Where state-building has occurred in postwar Somalia, it has been similarly marked by strong extractive and divisive tendencies (Lewis 81-3).   Hence, to favour stateb uilding in Somalia is to contribute to exacerbating conflict by taking stances between diffuse forces which favour some and disempower others.   In seeking local collaborators in building the state, the UN ended up favouring some clan militias against others (Rutherford 16, 23, 40-1).   On the other hand, empirical evidence does not confirm the view that peace required a strong state.   Statelessness as such did not cause civil war or social problems.   Until the 1980s, Somalia was extremely safe, despite or because of its weak state; the source of security was communal, not juridical (Menkhaus State Collapse 412).   Similarly, Somalia rapidly returned to peace after the UN departure, with conflict infrequent between 1995 and 2006 (Menkhaus Governance 87-8).   In part, this was due to the declining local influence of warlords inside their own clans.   Ameen Jan analyses the post-UN scenario as a revival of processes frozen by the intervention, which were already moving national power towards clans and clan power towards civilians (2001: 53-5).   Another apparent anomaly is that the de facto independent northwestern region of Somaliland successfully constructed peace and local political institutions with meagre resources, at the same time that expensive U N peace conferences were failing (Lewis ix-x).   This process succeeded because it arose from the grassroots and started with reconciliation on issues of contention, many of which were social issues such as buying off militia members and resolving land disputes (Lewis 91, 94-5; Menkhaus, Governance 91).   Hence, the causes of the civil war in parts of Somalia were contingent products of circumstances which are unlikely to recur (Menkhaus and Pendergast 7, 15).   Having started from the wrong premises, it is no surprise that the wrong conclusions were reached.   Successful peacebuilding in Somalia would involve a transition from a violent diffuse acephalous society to a peaceful diffuse acephalous society, whereas the colonial assumptions of peacekeepers instead sought to override the entire structure of Somali society as a means to construct their preferred form of order.   In practice, this obsession with order and interpellation of otherness as disorder expresses itself in reliance on hard power.   The UN and US sought to rely on technical and military power as a substitute for engagement in the context (Debrix 115, Wheeler 2002: 181, 205).   This tends to reproduce the very context posited by the Northern discourse.   Pieterse has argued that the emphasis on hard power in interventions reinforces or even creates rigid ethnic categories and authoritarian institutions, hence creating the conditions for humanitarian crisis. The emphasis on hard power stemming from the problematic of sovereignty effectively rendered peacebuilding impossible.   While local clan reconciliation conferences were more effective in practice, the UN approach focused on militia leaders, a process which tended to entrench their power and disaggregate them from their support-base (Jan 2001: 63).   This misrepresented their power through the frame of sovereignty.   Clan militias, like Clastrean chiefs, did not hold stable power.   They were speculative and temporary, and subject to rapid decomposition (Lewis 80, Menkhaus and Pendergast 4-5).   Lewis views the Somali militias as clan militias involved mainly in territorial conflicts (Lewis 75).   Far from dominating the context, militias depended on soft power within clans to a great degree, and were unable even to implement accords among themselves due to their limited influence over their clans (Menkhaus and Pendergast 4-5).   Clastres theory of warfare in indigenous societies, the source of the Deleuzian theory of war-machines, emphasises the role of intergroup alliances and balancing as quasi-intentional means of warding off concentrated power and transcendentalism. Intergroup feuding expresses ‘the will of each community to assert its difference,‘[t]o assure the permanence of the dispersion, the parcelling, the atomization of the groups.   Such a situation of centrifugal forces is indeed typical of the kind of conflict settings which peacekeeping interventions target.   Somalis are predominantly nomads, and form the archetypal nomadic war-machines carrying out the diffusion of social power.   The frame applied from the North is, however, rather dangerous: the logic of the war-machine is misunderstood as a primal Hobbesian violence.   This sets peacekeepers up for colonial warfare.   The terminal crisis of the UN intervention arose from the redefinition of one of the two major allia nces of clan militias as an enemy.   Focused unduly on the person of General Aidid, the escalation arose following an attack on UN troops which was interpreted as a violation of transcendental sovereignty, an attack on protected bodies of exceptional value.   In the local frame, however, it was reconfigured as horizontal warfare rather than vertical enforcement, and the UN became seen as the ‘sixteenth Somali faction (Jan 2001: 72).   Hence, it seems that an incapacity to think outside a narrowly statist frame was the source both of a violently colonial intervention, and of the constitutive unrealisability of the goals of the intervention.   It would seem that statism and colonialism intersect, with certain Southern societies judged as inferior for their lack of state forms.   This expresses the promotion of the Northern state, in spite of its increasing authoritarianism and colonial legacy, as an unmarked term to which the world should aspire.   Although it is outside the scope of this paper, it is also apparent that Southern states are typically pathologised as the wrong ‘type of state too corrupt, too contaminated by the dirty world of social life, insufficiently able to mobilise uncontested concentrated power or authority.   It is possible that the club of ‘real democracies, or ‘successful states, is actually a repetition of Fanons club of the civilised, held up as a goal for those w ho are constitutively excluded from it.   3.   Victims The third set of assumptions of such theories are concentrated in the figure of the victim.   The victim is a contradictory figure, for, while she is the quasi-absolute ethical referent of peacekeeping theory, the figure on whose behalf other ethical principles may be suspended, whose call is the source of an imp